Brigitte Rohwerder

This research investigates how COVID-19 has affected experiences of people with disabilities in low-and middle-income contexts. A qualitative approach was used to collect data as the pandemic progressed from 75 participants in Nigeria, Bangladesh, Nepal, Kenya, and Uganda. The research aimed to be inclusive of people with disabilities by asking the participants directly about their perspectives with a narrative interview method being employed to gain each person's unique insights. A participatory thematic analysis of the data, followed by a spatial analysis process, produced rich and highly individualized accounts of the spatiocultural experiences relating to how people with disabilities had occupied both private and public space during the pandemic. Differing factors, such as the dominant culture, gender, a person's impairments, and the social environment, are shown to shape people's experiences. Across cultures, COVID-19 is shown to have presented new challenges for people with disabilities while preexisting disadvantages have been exacerbated.

This situational analysis (SITAN) addresses the question: “what is the current situation in relation to formal sector employment for persons with disabilities in Uganda?”. It has been prepared for the Inclusion Works programme (which works on disability inclusive formal employment in Bangladesh, Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda), to better understand the current context and available evidence in Uganda, and will be helpful for anyone interested in disability inclusion, especially in relation to employment, in Uganda. It focuses on persons with disabilities, employers, policy, the disability movement, and partnerships.

This situational analysis (SITAN) addresses the question: “what is the current situation in relation to formal sector employment for persons with disabilities in Kenya?”. It has been prepared for the Inclusion Works programme (which works on disability inclusive formal employment in Bangladesh, Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda), to better understand the current context and available evidence in Kenya, and will be helpful for anyone interested in disability inclusion, especially in relation to employment, in Kenya. It focuses on persons with disabilities, employers, policy, the disability movement, and partnerships.

This situational analysis (SITAN) addresses the question: “what is the current situation for persons with disabilities in Tanzania?”. It has been prepared for the Disability Inclusive Development programme (which works on access to education, jobs, healthcare, and reduced stigma and discrimination for persons with disabilities in Bangladesh, Jordan, Kenya, Nepal, Nigeria, and Tanzania), to better understand the current context, including COVID-19, and available evidence in Tanzania. It will be helpful for anyone interested in disability inclusion in Tanzania, especially in relation to stigma, employment, education, health, and humanitarian issues.

This situational analysis (SITAN) addresses the question: “what is the current situation for persons with disabilities in Nepal?”. It has been prepared for the Disability Inclusive Development programme (which works on access to education, jobs, healthcare, and reduced stigma and discrimination for persons with disabilities in Bangladesh, Jordan, Kenya, Nepal, Nigeria, and Tanzania), to better understand the current context, including COVID-19, and available evidence in Nepal. It will be helpful for anyone interested in disability inclusion in Nepal, especially in relation to stigma, employment, education, health, and humanitarian issues.

This situational analysis (SITAN) addresses the question: “what is the current situation for persons with disabilities in Kenya?”. It has been prepared for the Disability Inclusive Development programme (which works on access to education, jobs, healthcare, and reduced stigma and discrimination for persons with disabilities in Bangladesh, Jordan, Kenya, Nepal, Nigeria, and Tanzania), to better understand the current context, including COVID-19, and available evidence in Kenya. It will be helpful for anyone interested in disability inclusion in Kenya, especially in relation to stigma, employment, education, health, and humanitarian issues.

This annotated bibliography provides an overview and outlines key messages from a selected range of academic and practioner literature looking at gender and disability in low- and middle-income countries, which may help with planning for gender inclusion in programmes and projects. The papers included here are not intended to be an exhaustive list of all the relevant literature. A focus is placed literature looking at the main areas of work of the Disability Inclusive Development programme: stigma, livelihoods (which also applies to the Inclusion Works programme), education, and health, as well as humanitarian contexts. Literature which focuses solely on one of these areas has been included in the relevant sections, and those which address multiple areas are included in the first, overarching section on gender and disability. As is often the case, the literature on gender and disability in low- and middle-income countries has a tendency to focus mainly on the experiences of women and girls with disabilities. There is a lack of evidence relating to gender and disability in low- and middle-income countries, although more evidence is emerging as awareness of the importance of the issue grows. People with disabilities face exclusion and discrimination on the grounds of both their gender and their disability, as well as other intersecting factors such as age, race, class or poverty. The intersectional nature of discrimination and inequality impacts all areas of life, from access to services, personal security, livelihoods and leisure, through to individual choice and autonomy. Women and girls with disabilities are more likely to face discrimination and exclusion than people without disabilities and compared with men and boys with disabilities. Their participation in education, livelihoods, and healthcare is challenges by barriers including stigma and cultural practices resulting in discrimination and prejudice, lack of accessible services, and lack of support from family, teachers and institutions - all of which are exacerbated by poverty. Women with disabilities are also at greater risk of physical, mental and sexual abuse and because of stigmatisation, have lower marriage prospects. Therefore, it is important to ensure the meaningful inclusion of women and men with disabilities in programming.

This helpdesk report looks into the impacts of approaches and initiatives designed to either reduce conflict risk or maximise peacebuilding and developmental opportunities, associated with increased natural resource extraction – with a particular focus on non-renewable extractive resources such as minerals, oil and gas – in fragile and conflict-affected states.

Consociationalism arrangements, a form of power-sharing, have been used in violently divided societies as a means to end wars and build peace. However, many deeply divided countries have struggled to implement their power-sharing arrangements and the transition to more ‘normal’ politics is difficult. Research into reform of consociationalism arrangements in deeply divided societies is scarce and there is little focus or detail provided about the factors which affect the outcomes of these reforms. The few papers found on the subject are from academic sources. This review synthesises literature on the examples of countries undertaken or are undertaking reform of consociationalism arrangements, especially those which moved towards other forms of democracy. The first section of this report elaborates the term consociationalism and its four key institutional arrangements outlined by Lijphart, the the leading authority on consociationalism: executive power-sharing (grand coalitions representing different societal groups); proportionality rules in political representation; mutual vetoes, allowing communities to contest decisions against their interests; and group autonomy, or right to run their own affairs. The second section of this report outlines several case studies of peace agreement consociationalism arrangements in Northern Ireland, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Lebanon, and Burundi which illustrate the various pathways away from consociationalism arrangements. None of these deeply divided countries has made a full democratic transition away from consociationalism yet, but reforms (and attempts at reforms) have been made to their consociationalism arrangements.

This guide is designed to provide FCDO staff and other interested parties with information about free online courses and materials they can use to develop or refresh their humanitarian technical competencies. It is not an exhaustive list but provides a starting point for those working to support FCDO’s humanitarian objectives. Further resources may be added. The listing does not attempt to provide a sector by sector guide. It briefly explains what each course or resource is, what it covers, and how long it takes (where information is available). The courses and resources are mostly aimed at people with a general level of knowledge about humanitarian response or development. Most online courses require registration and can be started whenever the user wants. Inclusion in this list does not mean that courses or resources are officially endorsed by FCDO or K4D.

This report draws on and expands previous work by Brigitte Rohwerder looking at disability stigma in developing countries (written for K4D) and information on stigma in the situational analyses and labour market assessments of the four Inclusion Works programme countries.

This report draws on and expands previous work by Brigitte Rohwerder looking at disability stigma in developing countries (written for K4D) and information on stigma in the situational analyses of the six Disability Inclusive Development (DID) programme countries.

Children born of wartime rape, and their mothers, are often stigmatised by their own communities, due to their associations with political, ethnic or religious enemies. Their identity and sense of belonging are contested, which creates dangers for their physical security and emotional wellbeing. Children born of wartime rape are at risk of violence, abuse, abandonment, discrimination and marginalisation, at the hands of both families and communities. They often have less access to community resources, family protection and education or livelihood activities, and are likely to grow up in poverty. They can face challenges in registering their birth and their right to citizenship. The experiences of children born of wartime rape can result in a lifetime of detrimental consequences, and the stigmatisation they experience has continued long into the post war period. Their experiences differ as a result of gender, perceived ethnicity, social and economic status, as well as structural gender discrimination, especially in patriarchal and patrilineal societies. This rapid literature review looks at some of the available evidence on the experiences of children born of wartime rape in several different countries (Bosnia, Rwanda, Uganda, and Iraq) and lessons learned from efforts to support and reintegrate them into communities.

Decades of conflict in South Sudan, pre and post-independence in 2011, poverty and poor access to services have increased the rate of disability and rendered people with disabilities more marginalised and excluded as a result of the numerous attitudinal, environmental, and institutional barriers they face, and the lack of concerted efforts to include them. This rapid review identifies the available evidence on the experiences of people with disabilities living in South Sudan.

Across the world stereotypes, prejudice, and stigma contribute to the discrimination and exclusion experienced by people with disabilities and their families in all aspects of their lives. This rapid review looks at available evidence on the drivers of disability stigma in developing countries, and promising strategies for addressing these.

Turkey hosts the largest number of Syrian refugees, almost half of whom are women and girls. This rapid review looks at available evidence on how Syrian refugee women, girls, and people with disabilities have been affected by the response to the refugee crisis by a variety of actors, including the host government, international actors, and host communities.

Assistive technologies enable people to live healthy, productive, independent and dignified lives, yet most people who need them are currently unable to access them. This rapid review looks at examples of existing literature on the availability of assistive technologies and efforts to make these technologies more affordable and accessible in developing countries.

People with disabilities have been identified as a particularly marginalised and at risk group within Somali society as a result of the numerous attitudinal, environmental, and institutional barriers they face, and the lack of concerted efforts to include them . This rapid review identifies available evidence on the experiences of people with disabilities living in Somalia. There is ample anecdotal evidence and acknowledgements that the negative experiences of people with disabilities is a pressing issue across Somalia, as well as a very small number of research reports looking at disability in Somalia. As a result there are still numerous evidence gaps in relation to the experiences of people with disabilities living in Somalia. Even research reports which have been conducted on disability in Somalia acknowledge that little research has been produced and further research is needed (CEVSI & HI, 2012, p. 6). The small number of studies which have carried out research in Somalia have focused on mainly on children with disabilities and on people with psychosocial disabilities (mental health conditions). Much of this research has had a focus on Somaliland rather than the whole of Somalia. Further research with people with different types of disabilities and in different areas of Somalia is needed to more fully understand the experiences of people with disabilities living in Somalia, the barriers and challenges they face, and how they and their families have responded to them, including in relation to livelihoods.

While there is not a clear picture of disability in North Africa, the available evidence suggests that people with disabilities are doing less well in comparison to people without disabilities as a result of factors including marginalisation, stigma, lack of awareness of disability prevalence, lack of comprehensive protection and enforcement of the rights of people with disabilities, and inaccessible environments, services and workplaces. Such exclusion has costs for wider society and the lives of people with disabilities. This rapid review provides an overview the experiences of people with disabilities in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia.

The agriculture sector holds great potential before, during and after crises such as conflict and disasters caused by natural hazards, to save lives and contribute to livelihoods, support rural households, and provide decent employment (Eynon, 2017, p. 2; Mayen, 2016, p. 2). This rapid review looks at recent available evidence on the impact of conflict, protracted crises, and disasters caused by natural hazards on agriculture and efforts to support agriculture during, and rebuild it after, these crises. It is important to understand the impact of these crises on agriculture in order to ensure efforts to promote agriculture during and after crises effectively deal with the challenges facing the agriculture sector. The literature uncovered by this review suggests that while there is some available evidence, there seems to be a need for more research into the impact of conflict, protracted crises and disasters caused by natural hazards on agriculture and especially into the effectiveness of different efforts to support and rebuild agriculture. Conflict and natural disasters both cause damages and losses to the agricultural sector in a number of similar but also different ways, which require some different responses. Post conflict contexts are characterised by much higher levels of insecurity than natural disasters, for instance. Agricultural interventions need to deal with the impact of the specific crisis, as well as general agricultural development challenges. The evidence available in the literature uncovered by this rapid review suggests that much more research is needed to really understand what works, and what doesn’t work in relation to approaches to supporting and rebuilding agriculture in and after conflict, protracted crises, and disasters caused by natural hazards, as well as the impact these approaches have on agriculture.

Solid waste and faecal sludge management in situations of rapid mass displacement are important to public health and providing for a better environment. Despite this, both have been neglected in WASH programmes, which tend to have a focus on water. However increasing efforts are being made to find solutions to challenges in solid waste and faecal sludge management in difficult circumstances in humanitarian emergencies.

Every refugee statistic represents a life uprooted and on hold. The UN refugee agency, UNHCR, estimates that by the end of 2016, a total of 22.5 million refugees had been forcibly displaced as a result of persecution, conflict, violence, or human rights violations. Only 3 per cent of the global refugee population returned home in 2015, often in less than ideal conditions, with concerns that many of these returns may not be sustainable. Significant factors in the low rates of return were insecurity and conflict in countries of origin, an absence of socioeconomic support in areas of return, and a lack of political will to resolve the root causes of displacement. Many of these refugees have been in exile for years. Based on UNHCR’s definition (see box), 11.6 million refugees were in protracted refugee situations at the end of 2016, with 4.1 million of them in a situation lasting 20 years or more. The number of refugees in protracted situations increased in 2016 as many Syrian refugees have now been displaced for five years. Refugees need sustainable solutions so that they can live in dignity and peace.

The Covid-19 pandemic has affected communities globally, yet the impact has not been equal. People with disabilities were already often living with severe disadvantage and marginalisation and, as predicted by many disability-focused agencies, Covid-19 has exacerbated these inequalities. Emerging evidence from Inclusive Futures, a UK Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO)-funded programme, highlights the catastrophic emotional and material impacts on people with disabilities in Nepal and Bangladesh. To respond to and plan for future crises, decision makers should consult inclusively with both organisations of people with disabilities (OPDs) and people with disabilities themselves.

COVID-19 is deepening pre-existing inequalities. Emerging research suggests that people with disabilities across the world have experienced various rights violations and been disproportionality affected by the health, economic and social impacts of the pandemic and responses to it. The aim of this research was to better understand how people with disabilities who are often excluded from research have experienced the evolving COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh and Nepal. In order to better understand how it has affected some of the most marginalised groups of people with disabilities, this study used in-depth qualitative research to focus on people with intellectual, psychosocial, deafblindness and other multiple impairments.

India has a unique and complex religious history, with faith and spirituality playing an important role in everyday life. Hinduism is the majority religion, and there are many minority religions. India also has a complicated class system and entrenched gender structures. Disability is another important identity. Many of these factors determine people’s experiences of social inclusion or exclusion. This paper explores how these intersecting identities influence the experience of inequality and marginalisation, with a particular focus on people with disabilities from minority religious backgrounds. A participatory qualitative methodology was employed in Chennai, to gather case studies that describe in-depth experiences of participants. Our findings show that many factors that make up a person’s identity intersect in India and impact how someone is included or excluded by society, with religious minority affiliation, caste, disability status, and gender all having the potential to add ...

The COVID-19 pandemic is deepening pre-existing inequalities. Emerging research suggests that people with disabilities across the world have experienced various rights violations and been disproportionality affected by the health, economic and social impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the responses to it. The aim of this research was to explore how people with disabilities, who often are excluded from research, have experienced the evolving COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya. To better understand how it has affected jobseekers with disabilities, in-depth qualitative research was conducted in Kenya as part of the Inclusion Works programme.

This qualitative study was undertaken as part of the work of the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) funded Inclusion Works programme which aims to improve inclusive employment for people with disabilities in four countries: Uganda, Kenya, Nigeria, Bangladesh. When the COVID-19 pandemic emerged early in 2020 the work of this consortium programme was adapted to focus on pandemic relief and research activities, while some other planned work was not possible.

This article explores COVID-19 related experiences of disabled people in Bangladesh, Kenya, Nigeria, Nepal and Uganda. Narrative interviews generated storied responses, focussing on respondents' priorities, which enabled us to hear what was most significant for them and their families. 143 interviews were conducted online or by phone by 7 local researchers (3 disabled), with appropriate inclusive support. Nearly everyone was interviewed twice to capture the progression of impacts over time. The data was analysed thematically through a virtual participatory approach.An overarching 'subjective' theme of feelings experienced by the participants was labelled 'destabilisation, disorientation and uncertainty'. We also identified 'concrete' or material impacts. People experienced various dilemmas such as choosing between securing food and keeping safe, and tensions between receiving support and feeling increased vulnerability or dependence, with interplay betwee...

This article explores COVID-19 related experiences of disabled people in Bangladesh, Kenya, Nigeria, Nepal and Uganda. Narrative interviews generated storied responses, focussing on respondents' priorities, which enabled us to hear what was most significant for them and their families. 143 interviews were conducted online or by phone by 7 local researchers (3 disabled), with appropriate inclusive support. Nearly everyone was interviewed twice to capture the progression of impacts over time. The data was analysed thematically through a virtual participatory approach.An overarching 'subjective' theme of feelings experienced by the participants was labelled 'destabilisation, disorientation and uncertainty'. We also identified 'concrete' or material impacts. People experienced various dilemmas such as choosing between securing food and keeping safe, and tensions between receiving support and feeling increased vulnerability or dependence, with interplay betwee...

Rwanda’s recent history has seen a variety of government and non-government programmes that have helped increase women’s political participation, awareness of rights and access to finance, and women’s involvement in off-farm activities and other forms of paid work, particularly in rural areas. However, balancing paid and unpaid work remains a daunting task for the majority of women surveyed in this research study. Those who are struggling to achieve a positive balance between paid work and care work find it is due to working long hours, far from home, with little or no childcare support. The report argues that despite men being encouraged to become more involved in care activities, there is a need for advocacy at the household level about sharing care activities. In particular: men need to support women with agricultural cultivation and household tasks. There is also an emphasis on the need for redistribution of care responsibilities from families to other actors: Women expressed a desire for help from the community for care of the children; and more childcare centres to be set up by the state and NGOs to enable them to go to paid work. They would also benefit from the government providing health insurance and assistance with housing and children’s education, especially for families living in poverty. This report provides evidence on the need for creation of quality work to be nearer home, and for practical improvements in stoves and water delivery in order to ease the drudgery of the care responsibilities on women.

This paper summarises the findings of mixed-methods research that was carried out in Rwanda as part of the ‘Balancing Unpaid Care Work and Paid Work: Successes, Challenges and Lessons for Women’s Economic Empowerment Programmes and Policies’ research project (2015–17). It reflects the voices and experiences of women and their household members participating in women’s economic empowerment (WEE) programmes across four sites in the rural districts of Musanze and Huye. Participants in two WEE programmes are represented, namely the state-run Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme (VUP), and ActionAid Rwanda’s Food Security and Economic Empowerment Programme. The question addressed by the research was: How can women’s economic empowerment (WEE) policies and programmes take unpaid care work into account in order to enable women’s economic empowerment to be optimised, shared across families and sustained across generations? This study and its findings indicate that women are the primary caregivers in families, although older children in particular and spouses to some extent also engage in some care tasks. There is little help with care from outside the nuclear family. Women’s paid work opportunities are more limited than men’s because of gender norms around certain types of work and because they have less time to find out about paid work opportunities due to their involvement in care work. Women may do more than one job, and much paid work is temporary, occasional and irregular, as well as seasonal. Women’s income from paid work is important; but, whether sole earnings or combined, it is not always enough to meet household needs. Balancing paid and unpaid work is a daunting task for the majority of women. Both care and paid work are often physically challenging and time consuming. Women have little time for leisure and personal use. Women who are the sole adult earners and carers for their families are struggling the most. Women who are relatively better off tend to live in families which have other adults also contributing to providing income and care.

Households and individuals make decisions every day that directly impact on their health and nutrition outcomes, which are influenced by many factors, including social norms, myths and misinformation, impulsivity and procrastination, and the country context they live in (Ashton et al, 2015, p. 7; Luoto, 2017, p. 1). Behavioural economics/insights can help explain this decision making and create an environment in which people make choices that are better aligned with their aspirations, objectives, and perceived welfare (Ashton et al, 2015, p. 8). Interventions might involve supplying the correct information, refraining existing information, streamlining choices, or facilitating commitment to a welfare-enhancing decision (Ashton et al, 2015, p. 11). Insights from behavioural economics have mainly been applied in high income countries but are now being applied in a variety of low- and middle-income settings to improve health behaviours (Trujillo et al, 2015, p. 748). This rapid review looks at available literature on the application of behavioural economics/insights to health- and nutrition-related matters in low and middle income countries, focusing primarily on interventions relating to reproductive health, child health, and child nutrition.

The K4D helpdesk service provides brief summaries of current research, evidence, and lessons learned. Helpdesk reports are not rigorous or systematic reviews; they are intended to provide an introduction to the most important evidence related to a research question. They draw on a rapid desk-based review of published literature and consultation with subject specialists. Syria is a water scarce country, whose water problems have been compounded by the ongoing conflict and mass displacement. Water infrastructure and water supply have been directly attacked or deliberately turned off as a tactic of war, while lack of investment and maintenance of the system during the conflict have also caused problems. Actors in the WASH Sector and others have been carrying out assessments of the current situation in different areas of the country.

The available evidence on the impact of diversity on individual/team/organisational effectiveness in organisations is inconclusive and mixed as to its beneficial and negative outcomes. The majority of the literature seems to focus on private firms; who have reaped business benefits from equality and diversity, but not all firms, in all contexts, at all times. Knowledge about how, when, and why diversity and diversity management affects effective performance and organisational outcomes is limited.

The current conflict in Yemen, which began in 2015, has resulted in a humanitarian catastrophe. As of March 2017, 18.8 million people are in need of humanitarian support, and 10.3 million are in acute need (Sikurajapathy and Al-Fotih, 2017). Women, men, boys and girls have been affected in different ways by the conflict. This rapid reviews looks at the impact of the conflict on gender dynamics in Yemen. Most assessments conducted on the situation in Yemen since March 2015 have been ‘gender blind’ (Basharen, 2016: 1). However, a very small number of research studies and surveys have been carried out by a variety of UN organisations and non-government organisations (NGOs) working on the current response in Yemen, which have focused either on gender more broadly, or specifically on women and girls. Much of the evidence focuses on the impact of conflict on women and girls. The available evidence is based on a variety of qualitative and quantitative data gathered in Yemen and secondary sources. Academic literature addressing gender in the current conflict appears extremely scarce. Grey literature often refers back to the same few studies. The reports produced by organisations working in Yemen, such as OXFAM, Saferworld, and CARE, provide recommendations and on-the-ground perspectives of the priorities, needs and aspirations of conflict-affected communities. Yemen ranks last out of the 144 countries included in the 2016 World conomic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Index, a position it has held for the last 10 years. Even prior to the conflict, Yemeni women and girls experienced systematic discrimination and marginalisation. However, some progress was being made and the 2011 uprising challenged the norm of women’s limited participation in society with women actively participating in the protests, while women represented more than one-quarter of participants in the National Dialogue Conference (NDC) in 2014. Conflict threatens to reverse the advances made in recent years to address gender equality in Yemen.

People with disabilities have been found to ‘form one of the most socially excluded groups in any displaced or conflict-affected community’ (Pearce et al, 2016: 119). They may have difficulty accessing humanitarian assistance programmes, due to a variety of societal, attitudinal, environmental and communication barriers, and are at greater risk of violence than their non-disabled peers (Pearce, 2014: 4). Women and girls with disabilities are ‘particularly vulnerable to discrimination, exploitation and violence, including gender-based violence (GBV), but they may have difficulty accessing support and services that could reduce their risk and vulnerability (Pearce, 2014: 4). This rapid review looks at the available evidence on the risks and vulnerabilities faces by women and girls with disabilities in conflict and crises and interventions to support them.

This rapid review looks at the publicly available evidence in relation to lessons and best practice from joint (donor, government and non-state armed actors) coordination of donor support for peace processes. A rapid review has time limitations which mean what is presented is based on an overview of public literature and a few expert comments, rather than a systematic and rigorous study, and the findings should be understood in this light. There appear to be few cases of such joint coordination, especially in relation to the involvement of non-state armed groups, and very little information regarding lessons and best practices in relation to their principles, structure and processes. It is possible that much more joint coordination and lessons learning has occurred than can be found rapidly using open source searches, which makes it difficult to gauge what best practices for joint (donor, government and non-state armed actors) coordination of donor support for peace processes are.

What experience is there globally of civil society organisations providing / supporting accountability mechanisms in cash transfer programmes, at national scale?

Summary
Cash transfer programmes, like most social protection programmes, are vulnerable to fraud, errors, corruption and misuse of funds, which undermine their achievements.  Civil society organisations (CSOs) have supported, or provided, accountability mechanisms in countries around the world: working to improve transparency to help citizens hold authorities accountable; checking beneficiary lists; encouraging compliance by highlighting benefits; gathering feedback to improve services; assessing programme vulnerability to integrity risks and advocating improvements; and gathering grassroots level information on the programmes. This report looks at case studies from Brazil, Kenya, Mexico, Mozambique, the Occupied Palestine Territories, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines and Turkey.

Bhargava and Raha’s (2015) review of civil society engagement with cash transfer programme accountability found few studies, suggesting a significant knowledge gap. Nevertheless, emerging lessons in relation to CSOs supporting or providing accountability mechanisms in cash transfer programmes include the following:
◾CSOs’ support for, or provision of, accountability mechanisms for cash transfer programmes should complement, not replace, government accountability mechanisms. A combination of top-down and bottom-up approaches is most effective in mitigating risks.
◾CSOs can assess availability of information and advocate for greater transparency. Accessible Management Information Systems help CSOs hold programmes accountable.
◾CSOs can be important facilitators in the implementation of cash transfer programmes by better linking authorities and beneficiaries. They can encourage targeted populations to participate at all stages of the programme design and implementation to prevent fraud and corruption.
◾Participation of CSOs in grievance reporting can improve its responsiveness through raising awareness and facilitating grievance filing and follow-up.
◾Efforts should be made to strengthen and support local CSOs’ oversight and control of accountability mechanisms.
◾CSOs can provide technical advice to political parties on how to avoid and prevent political abuse of the programmes.
◾CSOs are not necessarily representative of beneficiaries, who may lack time and other resources to get involved. Their effectiveness can be hindered by coordination challenges, funding constraints, limited scale, the political economy, and donor priorities.
◾Lack of willingness by public officials to provide information, set up citizen oversight mechanisms, and correct and sanction corruption and mismanagement can pose problems for setting up civil society accountability mechanisms. CSOs cooperating with audit institutions to perform social audits could help overcome this.

What factors are discouraging or encouraging piracy in the Horn of Africa, West Africa and the Strait of Malacca? This report finds that a combination of factors in each of the regions have affected levels of piracy, at different times and depending on the type of piracy. For example, these factors may differ for subsistence pirates (largely gangs made up of part-timers who are often poor and seeking an alternative source of income) and professional pirates (hierarchically organised syndicates with well-developed logistical chains).

Factors encouraging piracy

Bueger (2015: 34) identifies five triggers for piracy from the literature: geography; weak law enforcement; maritime insecurity; economic dislocation, including economic shocks in the fishing sector; and cultural acceptability. Clark and Hansen (2012: 502) also identify the increased trend towards ‘skeleton crews’, competing demands for scarce security resources, the willingness of owner-operators to pay ever-larger ransoms, and the global proliferation of arms as factors that have contributed to piracy. Other factors include:
◾Illegal fishing and environmental degradation, which is mentioned as a key grievance driving piracy. Criminal gangs use this narrative while targeting valuable commercial ships unconnected to illegal fishing.
◾Community support, which enables pirates to hold hostages for months in ‘safe havens’.
◾‘Sea blindness’, including lax maritime rules and regulations, has weakened states’ capacity to combat piracy.

Factors discouraging piracy

Piracy has been reduced through a mix of methods, including naval patrols, self-protection measures and armed guards on vessels, and capacity building efforts and development on shore (Anyimadu, 2013: 17). Asariotis et al. (2014b: 57) suggest that piracy reduction depends on the economic situation and political stability in affected regions, as well as strengthened maritime security cooperation, information sharing, and the effective prosecution of pirates and those who benefit from piracy. In addition, an expert consulted for this report identifies three types of effective non-military land-based counter-piracy efforts:
◾shutting down the market for loot, which involves  better real-time tracking and registration of ships, better regulation and registration of refineries, ports and shipping companies, and more surveillance of unusual market manoeuvres
◾providing economic opportunities to increase the opportunity cost of engaging in piracy
◾decreasing the political space in which pirates can operate: for example, unifying elites against piracy works well and does not require particularly strong state institutions.

Discouraging piracy and solving piracy require different approaches; suppression is not the same as a lasting solution.  Counter-piracy efforts also need to recognise the different forms of piracy, which require differing initiatives to counteract them.

Question
What are the factors that help or inhibit sustainable livelihoods in refugee settings? – with a focus on Uganda

Summary
Uganda has hosted refugees from various neighbouring conflict-affect countries for several decades. Refugees in Uganda are either self-settled in urban and rural areas or live in organised settlements. Some research suggests that self-employed refugees are somewhat more successful than employed refugees, but there is little concrete evidence from Uganda that current refugee livelihood strategies are successfully fostering self-reliance and sustainable solutions.

Most of the available literature uncovered in this review is grey literature, published by both organisations working on supporting refugees and academics publishing the findings of their research in this area.

Some of the factors supporting or inhibiting sustainable livelihoods in Ugandan refugee settings include:
◾The policy environment, particularly the right to work, labour rights, freedom of movement, and access to services. Uganda’s refugee assistance has development-orientated components aimed at supporting the self-reliance and resilience of entire communities. However, livelihood strategies need to be diverse, a focus on agricultural self-reliance alone is not enough.
◾Social capital and networks. Ethnic ties seem to play a particular role in Uganda, as does the ability of refugees to integrate into local communities.
◾Training and skills development can provide a foundation for self-reliance, but alone are insufficient. Lack of access to capital, markets and credit are also important.
◾Refugee profiles, as refugees of different ethnicities, ages, gender, ability, education, duration of stay, have varying levels of access to social networks, land and credit. For example, negative gender stereotypes and discriminatory attitudes towards refugees with disabilities can prevent women refugees and those with disabilities from finding work, or push them towards negative coping strategies.

Refugee livelihood programming should have: localised contextual awareness; refugee and local input; partnerships with host institutions; and long-term and predictable funding.

This Evidence Report details key insights from the Institute of Development Studies Addressing and Mitigating Violence programme, which involved detailed political analysis of dynamics of violence as well as efforts to reduce and prevent violent conflict across a number of countries and areas in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and South Asia.

In particular, the evidence highlighted here is from violent settings that do not neatly fit categories of ‘war’ or ‘peace’. The findings of these studies, published as a series of open-access reports, Policy Briefings and blogs, were discussed by conflict and security experts as well as thinkers from aid and advocacy organisations at a consultative session in London in November 2015.

This report uses evidence from the programme to critically reflect on policy and programming policy approaches for reducing violence. Specifically, it provides a synthesis of findings around these themes: (1) the nature of violence and how it might be changing; (2) the connectivity of actors across levels and space; and (3) the significance of identities and vulnerabilities for understanding and responding to violence. The report concludes by examining the implications of the research for the violence reduction paradigm.